Finite-Dimensional Vector Spaces - P. Halmos (Springer, 1987)
在学习代数学之余，值得一看的代数学书籍。里面介绍了更为丰富的代数学概念和结论。PREFACEMy purpose in this book is to treat linear transformations on finite-dimensional vector spaces by the methods of more general theories. Theidea is to emphasize the simple geometric notions common to many partsof mathematics and its applications, and to do so in a language that givesaway the trade secrets and tells the student what is in the back of the mindsof people proving theorems about integral equations and Hilbert spaces.The reader does not, however, have to share my prejudiced motivationExcept for an occasional reference to undergraduate mathematics the bookis self-contained and may be read by anyone who is trying to get a feelingfor the linear problems usually discussed in courses on matrix theory orhigher"algebra. The algebraic, coordinate-free methods do not lose powerand elegance by specialization to a finite number of dimensions, and theyare, in my belief, as elementary as the classical coordinatized treatmentI originally intended this book to contain a theorem if and only if aninfinite-dimensional generalization of it already exists, The temptingeasiness of some essentially finite-dimensional notions and results washowever, irresistible, and in the final result my initial intentions are justbarely visible. They are most clearly seen in the emphasis, throughout, ongeneralizable methods instead of sharpest possible results. The reader maysometimes see some obvious way of shortening the proofs i give In suchcases the chances are that the infinite-dimensional analogue of the shorterproof is either much longer or else non-existent.A preliminary edition of the book (Annals of Mathematics Studies,Number 7, first published by the Princeton University Press in 1942)hasbeen circulating for several years. In addition to some minor changes instyle and in order, the difference between the preceding version and thisone is that the latter contains the following new material:(1) a brief dis-cussion of fields, and, in the treatment of vector spaces with inner productsspecial attention to the real case.(2)a definition of determinants ininvariant terms, via the theory of multilinear forms. 3 ExercisesThe exercises(well over three hundred of them) constitute the mostsignificant addition; I hope that they will be found useful by both studentPREFACEand teacher. There are two things about them the reader should knowFirst, if an exercise is neither imperative "prove that.., )nor interrogtive("is it true that...?" )but merely declarative, then it is intendedas a challenge. For such exercises the reader is asked to discover if theassertion is true or false, prove it if true and construct a counterexample iffalse, and, most important of all, discuss such alterations of hypothesis andconclusion as will make the true ones false and the false ones true. Secondthe exercises, whatever their grammatical form, are not always placed 8oas to make their very position a hint to their solution. Frequently exer-cises are stated as soon as the statement makes sense, quite a bit beforemachinery for a quick solution has been developed. A reader who tries(even unsuccessfully) to solve such a"misplaced"exercise is likely to ap-preciate and to understand the subsequent developments much better forhis attempt. Having in mind possible future editions of the book, I askthe reader to let me know about errors in the exercises, and to suggest im-provements and additions. (Needless to say, the same goes for the text.)None of the theorems and only very few of the exercises are my discovery;most of them are known to most working mathematicians, and have beenknown for a long time. Although i do not give a detailed list of my sources,I am nevertheless deeply aware of my indebtedness to the books and papersfrom which I learned and to the friends and strangers who, before andafter the publication of the first version, gave me much valuable encourage-ment and criticism. Iam particularly grateful to three men: J. L. Dooband arlen Brown, who read the entire manuscript of the first and thesecond version, respectively, and made many useful suggestions, andJohn von Neumann, who was one of the originators of the modern spiritand methods that I have tried to present and whose teaching was theinspiration for this bookP、R.HCONTENTS的 FAPTERPAGRI SPACESI. Fields, 1; 2. Vector spaces, 3; 3. Examples, 4;4. Comments, 55. Linear dependence, 7; 6. Linear combinations. 9: 7. Bases, 108. Dimension, 13; 9. Isomorphism, 14; 10. Subspaces, 16; 11. Calculus of subspaces, 17; 12. Dimension of a subspace, 18; 13. Dualspaces, 20; 14. Brackets, 21; 15. Dual bases, 23; 16. Reflexivity, 24;17. Annihilators, 26; 18. Direct sums, 28: 19. Dimension of a directsum, 30; 20. Dual of a direct sum, 31; 21. Qguotient spaces, 33;22. Dimension of a quotient space, 34; 23. Bilinear forms, 3524. Tensor products, 38; 25. Product bases, 40 26. Permutations41; 27. Cycles,44; 28. Parity, 46; 29. Multilinear forms, 4830. Alternating formB, 50; 31. Alternating forms of maximal degree,52II. TRANSFORMATIONS32. Linear transformations, 55; 33. Transformations as vectors, 5634. Products, 58; 35. Polynomials, 59 36. Inverses, 61; 37. Mat-rices, 64; 38. Matrices of transformations, 67; 39. Invariance,7l;40. Reducibility, 72 41. Projections, 73 42. Combinations of pro-jections, 74; 43. Projections and invariance, 76; 44. Adjoints, 78;45. Adjoints of projections, 80; 46. Change of basis, 82 47. Similarity, 84; 48. Quotient transformations, 87; 49. Range and null-space, 88; 50. Rank and nullity, 90; 51. Transformations of rankone, 92 52. Tensor products of transformations, 95; 53. Determinants, 98 54. Proper values, 102; 55. Multiplicity, 104; 56. Triangular form, 106; 57. Nilpotence, 109; 58. Jordan form. 112III ORTHOGONALITY11859. Inner products, 118; 60. Complex inner products, 120; 61. Innerproduct spaces, 121; 62 Orthogonality, 122; 63. Completeness, 124;64. Schwarz e inequality, 125; 65. Complete orthonormal sets, 127;CONTENTS66. Projection theorem, 129; 67. Linear functionals, 130; 68. P aren, gBCHAPTERtheses versus brackets, 13169. Natural isomorphisms, 138;70. Self-adjoint transformations, 135: 71. Polarization, 13872. Positive transformations, 139; 73. Isometries, 142; 74. Changeof orthonormal basis, 144; 75. Perpendicular projections, 14676. Combinations of perpendicular projections, 148; 77. Com-plexification, 150; 78. Characterization of spectra, 158; 79. Spec-ptral theorem, 155; 80. normal transformations, 159; 81. Orthogonaltransformations, 162; 82. Functions of transformations, 16583. Polar decomposition, 169; 84. Commutativity, 171; 85. Self-adjoint transformations of rank one, 172IV. ANALYSIS....17586. Convergence of vectors, 175; 87. Norm, 176; 88. Expressions forthe norm, 178; 89. bounds of a self-adjoint transformation, 17990. Minimax principle, 181; 91. Convergence of linear transformations, 182 92. Ergodic theorem, 184 98. Power series, 186APPENDIX. HILBERT SPACERECOMMENDED READING, 195INDEX OF TERMS, 197INDEX OF SYMBOLS, 200CHAPTER ISPACES§L. FieldsIn what follows we shall have occasion to use various classes of numbers(such as the class of all real numbers or the class of all complex numbers)Because we should not at this early stage commit ourselves to any specificclass, we shall adopt the dodge of referring to numbers as scalars. Thereader will not lose anything essential if he consistently interprets scalarsas real numbers or as complex numbers in the examples that we shallstudy both classes will occur. To be specific(and also in order to operateat the proper level of generality) we proceed to list all the general factsabout scalars that we shall need to assume(A)To every pair, a and B, of scalars there corresponds a scalar a+called the sum of a and B, in such a way that(1) addition is commutative,a+β=β+a,(2)addition is associative, a+(8+y)=(a+B)+y(3 there exists a unique scalar o(called zero)such that a+0= a forevery scalar a, and(4)to every scalar a there corresponds a unique scalar -a such that十(0(B)To every pair, a and B, of scalars there corresponds a scalar aBcalled the product of a and B, in such a way that(1)multiplication is commutative, aB pa(2)multiplication is associative, a(Br)=(aB)Y,( )there exists a unique non-zero scalar 1 (called one)such that al afor every scalar a, and(4)to every non-zero scalar a there corresponds a unique scalar a-1or-such that aaSPACES(C)Multiplication is distributive with respect to addition, a(a+n)If addition and multiplication are defined within some set of objectsscalars) so that the conditions(A),B), and (c)are satisfied, then thatset(together with the given operations) is called a field. Thus, for examplethe set Q of all rational numbers(with the ordinary definitions of sumand product)is a field, and the same is true of the set of all real numberaand the set e of all complex numbersHHXERCISIS1. Almost all the laws of elementary arithmetic are consequences of the axiomsdefining a field. Prove, in particular, that if 5 is field and if a, and y belongto 5. then the following relations hold80+a=ab )Ifa+B=a+r, then p=yca+(B-a)=B (Here B-a=B+(a)(d)a0=0 c=0.(For clarity or emphasis we sometimes use the dot to indi-cate multiplication.()(-a)(-p)(g).If aB=0, then either a=0 or B=0(or both).2.(a)Is the set of all positive integers a field? (In familiar systems, such as theintegers, we shall almost always use the ordinary operations of addition and multi-lication. On the rare occasions when we depart from this convention, we shallgive ample warningAs for "positive, "by that word we mean, here and elsewherein this book, "greater than or equal to zero If 0 is to be excluded, we shall say"strictly positive(b)What about the set of all integers?(c) Can the answers to these questiong be changed by re-defining addition ormultiplication (or both)?3. Let m be an integer, m2 2, and let Zm be the set of all positive integers lessthan m, zm=10, 1, .. m-1). If a and B are in Zmy let a +p be the leastpositive remainder obtained by dividing the(ordinary) sum of a and B by m, andproduct of a and B by m.(Example: if m= 12, then 3+11=2 and 3. 11=9)a) Prove that i is a field if and only if m is a prime.(b What is -1 in Z5?(c) What is囊izr?4. The example of Z, (where p is a prime)shows that not quite all the laws ofelementary arithmetic hold in fields; in Z2, for instance, 1 +1 =0. Prove thatif is a field, then either the result of repeatedly adding 1 to itself is always dif-ferent from 0, or else the first time that it is equal to0 occurs when the numberof summands is a prime. (The characteristic of the field s is defined to be 0 in thefirst case and the crucial prime in the second)SEC. 2VECTOR SPACES35. Let Q(v2)be the set of all real numbers of the form a+Bv2, wherea and B are rational.(a)Ie(√2) a field?(b )What if a and B are required to be integer?6.(a)Does the set of all polynomials with integer coefficients form a feld?(b)What if the coeficients are allowed to be real numbers?7: Let g be the set of all(ordered) pairs(a, b)of real numbers(a) If addition and multiplication are defined by(a月)+(,6)=(a+y,B+6)and(a,B)(Y,8)=(ary,B6),does s become a field?(b )If addition and multiplication are defined by(α,月)+⑦,b)=(a+%,B+6)daB)(,b)=(ay-6a6+的y),is g a field then?(c)What happens (in both the preceding cases)if we consider ordered pairs ofcomplex numbers instead?§2. Vector spaceWe come now to the basic concept of this book. For the definitionthat follows we assume that we are given a particular field s; the scalarsto be used are to be elements of gDEFINITION. A vector space is a set o of elements called vectors satisfyingthe following axiomsQ (A)To every pair, a and g, of vectors in u there corresponds vectora t y, called the aum of a and y, in such a way that(1)& ddition is commutative,x十y=y十a(2)addition is associative, t+(y+2)=(+y)+a(3)there exists in V a unique vector 0(called the origin) such thata t0=s for every vector and(4)to every vector r in U there corresponds a unique vector -rthat c+(-x)=o(B)To every pair, a and E, where a is a scalar and a is a vector in u,there corresponds a vector at in 0, called the product of a and a, in sucha way that(1)multiplication by scalars is associative, a(Bx)=aB)=, and(2 lz a s for every vector xSPACESSFC B(C)(1)Multiplication by scalars is distributive with respect to vectorddition, a(+y=a+ ag, and2)multiplication by vectors is distributive with respect to scalar ad-dition, (a B )r s ac+ Bc.These axioms are not claimed to be logically independent; they aremerely a convenient characterization of the objects we wish to study. Therelation between a vector space V and the underlying field s is usuallydescribed by saying that v is a vector space over 5. If S is the field Rof real number, u is called a real vector space; similarly if s is Q or if gise, we speak of rational vector spaces or complex vector space§3. ExamplesBefore discussing the implications of the axioms, we give some examplesWe shall refer to these examples over and over again, and we shall use thenotation established here throughout the rest of our work.(1) Let e(= e)be the set of all complex numbers; if we interpretr+y and az as ordinary complex numerical addition and multiplicatione becomes a complex vector space2)Let o be the set of all polynomials, with complex coeficients, in avariable t. To make into a complex vector space, we interpret vectoraddition and scalar multiplication as the ordinary addition of two poly-nomials and the multiplication of a polynomial by a complex numberthe origin in o is the polynomial identically zeroExample(1)is too simple and example (2)is too complicated to betypical of the main contents of this book. We give now another exampleof complex vector spaces which(as we shall see later)is general enough forall our purposes.3)Let en,n= 1, 2,. be the set of all n-tuples of complex numbers.Ix=(1,…,轨)andy=(m1,…,n) are elements of e, we write,,bdefinitionz+y=〔1+叽,…十物m)0=(0,…,0),-inIt is easy to verify that all parts of our axioms(a),(B), and (C),52, aresatisfied, so that en is a complex vector space; it will be called n-dimenaionalcomplex coordinate space
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动态贝叶斯网络
动态贝叶斯网络（Dynamic Bayesian Network, DBN），是一个随着毗邻时间步骤把不同变量联系起来的贝叶斯网络。这通常被叫做“两个时间片”的贝叶斯网络，因为DBN在任意时间点T，变量的值可以从内在的回归量和直接先验值（time T-1）计算。DBN是BN（Baysian Network）的扩展，BN也称作概率网络（Probabilistic Network）或信念网络（Belief Network）。前言不确定性理论在人工智能机器学习、自动控制领域已经得到越来越广泛的应用。本书以当前国际上不确定性研究领域的核心工具—动态贝叶斯网络为线索,进行了动态网络推理算法、平稳系统动态贝叶斯网络结构学习模型设计、非平稳系统动态网络变结构学习模型设计、基于概率模型进化算法的动态贝叶斯网络结构寻优算法的研究。推理算法以隐变量作为划分依据,讨论了离散、连续、混合模型的推理算法,并进行了算法复杂度及应用领域的讨论;结构学习研究首先从度量体制人手,讨论了动态网络度量体制的可分解性,提出了平稳及非平稳系统网络结构学习模型,以及基于贪婪算法思想的遗传算法寻优思想;最终将推理及结构学习理论用于无人机路径规划、战场态势感知、动态数据挖掘、自主控制领域,并通过大量仿真检验。本书的研究工作得到了西安工业大学专着甚金及国家自然科学基金重大研究计划(90205019)的资助。本书全面系统地介绍了动态贝叶斯网络的相关理论,重点介绍了动态网络的经典应用和国内外的新发展。全书共分9章。第1章概述了动态贝叶斯网络的产生与发展、基本操作及表达。第2章和第3章为本书的理论基础部分,首先从静态网络已经取得的理论成果及研究内容人手,由浅入深引出动态贝叶斯网络的基本概念及研究方向,确定本书将要解决的主要问题:DBN推理问题和连续变量的DBN结构学习问题。第4章在第3章基础上,详细讨论了三类动态贝叶斯网络的推理即隐变量离散、隐变量连续、隐变量混合DBN推理;隐马尔科夫模型是所有离散动态网络的基础,故首先介绍其表达及推理,由此派生出其他离散动态网络,并讨论了奶何将复杂离散网络转化为简单HMM的方法,通过算法复杂度实验分析,明确了离散动态网络的相应属性,得出了相应结论,为合理选择DBN推理算法提供依据;在推理中,若系统参数未知或为时变系统,必然涉及参数学习,故在讨论三类网络的推理中亦涉及参数学习问题。第5章从静态网络结构度量机制入手,讨论并推导出动态贝叶斯网络结构用于网络结构度量的BIC及BD度量机制;通过描述基于概率模型进化算法的构图基础,引出动态贝叶斯网络结构学习机制,即基于贝叶斯优化(BOA)的动态网络结构寻优算法,BOA算法的关键是根据优良解集学习得到动态贝叶斯网络,以及根据动态贝叶斯网络推理生成新个体,前者更为重要,按照本书提出的基于贪婪箅法思想的遗传算法解决动态网络学习,然后应用动态贝叶斯网络前向模拟完成后一步。第6章在此基础上,刻画了基于BD度量体制的平稳动态系统DBN结构学习模型设计,并通过仿真验证了其有效性针对非平稳随机系统DBN的结构学习模型,提出了一种自适应窗口法用于在线自适应学习变结构DBN结构,仿真结果可行。第7章在第4章DBN推理理论的基础上,从以往UCAⅴ路径规划中使用的方法以及涉及的定义、术语等出发,讨论了静态路径规划、动态路进规划及空间路径规划三方面的基本问题,通过对原始 Voronoi图的改进,提出了平面改进型Voronoi图、空间改进型 Voronoi图的概念,以及平面及空间动态路径重规划区域原则等,为动态路径规划提供有力的整体构型支撑,进而应用前几章理论基础,建立基于DBN的战场环境感知模型,仿真结果均表明了构图及动态决策模型的正确性。第8章在DBN推理及结构学习的理论基础上,将其用于自主优化及动态数据挖掘。将BOA及基于概率模型的遗传算法的静态图形的优化机制进行推广,提出了一种动态优化的新方法,利用DBN作为t到t+1代转移网络,适时改变优化的基本条件,实时确立新的种群及优化的方向,使得自主智能体在无人干预下顺利完成一系列复杂任务成为可能,将变结构DBN结构学习模型设计用于动态数据挖掘,实时确定个因素之间的关系。第9章通过两个典型的应Ⅳ用实例,将DN推理学习理论进行融合,并用于实际模型。附录给出了与DN结构度量相关定理、性质的证明,为读者进一步研究和学习动态贝叶斯网络提供参考。本书是作者近年来潜心学习和研究国内外不确定性算法理论、方法和应用成果的一个总结。在本书的编写过程中,得到了西安电子科技大学焦李成教授和清华大学戴琼海教授及英国BankUniversity陈大庆教授的热心指导和鼓励,新加坡南洋理工大学的王海芸博土后审阅了书稿,并提出了许多宝贵意见,特向他们表示衷心的感谢。由于涉及内容广泛及限于作者的学识水平,书中疏漏和不当之处在所难免,希望读者不吝赐教指正。作者目录第1章图模型与贝叶斯网络1.1图模型简介1.2动态贝叶斯网络鲁+垂香曲1.3动态贝叶斯网络应用研究1.3.1动态时序数据分析与挖掘曾··會世57781.3.2无人机的态势感知与路径规划1.3.3.进化算法与动态贝叶斯网络混合优化…10第2章静态贝叶斯网络…112.1静态贝叶斯置信网络2.2贝叶斯网络的特点与应用范围……………152.3贝叶斯网络的研究内容162.3.1计算复杂性162.3.2网络结构的确定问题2.3.3已知结构的参数确定问题…………182.3.4在给定结构上的概率计算…4福通而看高自曲着看西画192.3.5贝叶斯网络推理算法…………………19第3章动态贝叶斯网络基础283.1从静态网到动态网283.1.1概述283.1.2推导…………………………293.1.3动态贝叶斯网络表达要鲁垂鲁鲁中t曲·曹市壘曾曹吾普·量313.2动态贝叶斯网络的研究内容…………353.2.1动态贝叶斯网络推理……………………363.2.2动态贝叶斯网络学习…………………………39第4章动态贝叶斯网络推理464.1隐变量离散动态网络推理464.1.1模型数学描述…………………464.1.2马尔科夫的研究内容…4.1.3隐马尔科夫推理学习仿真…534.1.4隐马尔科夫其他拓扑形式…………564.1.5一般离散动态网络和隐马尔科夫关系584.2动态贝叶斯网络推理算法性能分析604.2.1动态网络转化隐马尔科夫仿真…614.2.2离散动态网络推理算法比较仿真……634.2.3连续动态网络推理比较仿真………724.3模糊推理与隐马尔科夫结合炮火校射……………754.3.1概述…音曲曹香音音音吾晋自粤吾·自·754.3.2模糊动态网络环境感知框架754.4隐变量连续动态网络推理4.4.1模型数学描述…794.4.2卡尔曼滤波图模型推理·日·曹曹曾鲁····804.5混合隐状态动态贝叶斯网络834.5.1模型数学描述……b音量章申曾要中命要即命·甲看834.5.2混合动态贝叶斯网络推理864.5.3混合动态贝叶斯网络学习89第5章动态贝叶斯网络结构学习算法……915.1动态贝叶斯网络结构度量体制…………915.1.1概述…………915.1.2动态网络的贝叶斯信息度量935.1.3动态贝叶斯网络BD度量965.2动态贝叶斯网络度量分解性能分析省着带鲁曹曹曹鲁鲁鲁虚鲁鲁中·985.3构建动态网络结构寻优算法…1145.3.1基于概率模型的进化算法…1155.3.2基于贝叶斯优化构造动态网络结构算法…1165.3.3学习动态贝叶斯网络……………1185.3.4动态夏叶斯网络推理1275.4基于贝叶斯优化构建动态网络结构算法仿真…128第6章动态贝叶斯网络结构学习模型1346.1平稳系统动态网络结构学习模型设计1346.1.1模型设计1356.1.2仿真试验1386.2变结构动态网络自适应结构学习模型设计…………1446,2,1模糊自适应双尺度1446.2.2动态系统非平稳程度和平稳性的测量1516.3非平稳系统网络结构学习仿真试验153第7章基于动态贝叶斯网络的路径规划1657.1无人机平面静态路径规划…1657.1.1基本概念……………1657.1.2基于相同威胁体的路径规划…1667.1.3不同威胁体下平面路径规划1717.1.4路径细化暨要命要曹吾帝吾辛事壶要面要吾吾曹中垂要晋吾曹事1767.2无人机动态路径规划1787,2.1概述1797.2.2平面动态环境下局部路径构图原则1797.2.3威胁变化下无人机平面路径规划………1827.2.4突发威胁体下无人机平面路径重规划研究1867.3无人机空间路径规划研究………………………1907.3.1空间改进型 Voronoi图………1907.3.2威胁变化下局部路径构图区域原则1957.3.3局部路径选择原则及战场感知模型…197第8章基于动态贝叶斯网络的自主控制…1998.1概述…1998.2快速构建决策网络结构方法…2008.2.1链形决策网络模型的建立………2018.2.2决策网络树形模型结构学习算法…2048.2.3一般决策网络结构学习算法2058.3进化算法与动态网络混合优化……2068.3.1算法基本思想2068.3.2转移网络作用中鲁鲁··章鲁···自··………2108.3.3混合优化自主控制算法描述…2108.3.4混合优化自主控制算法软件实现………211第9章无人机自主控制应用研究2249.1基于混合优化的无人机路径重规划.2249.1.1自主控制过程描述2249.1.2混合优化无人机路径规划仿真…2259.2无人机攻击多目标路径规划………………2379.2.1自主控制过程描述……………2389.2.2初始动态网络图构型2399.2.3无人机自主攻击多随机运动目标仿真240附录贝叶斯网络局部结构度量数学基础250A.1链形模型局部结构度量250A.2树形模型局部结构度量253A.3局部贝叶斯网络度量………………………………257参考文献…………………………………262
- 2021-05-06下载
- 积分：1
