Finite-Dimensional Vector Spaces - P. Halmos (Springer, 1987)
在学习代数学之余，值得一看的代数学书籍。里面介绍了更为丰富的代数学概念和结论。PREFACEMy purpose in this book is to treat linear transformations on finite-dimensional vector spaces by the methods of more general theories. Theidea is to emphasize the simple geometric notions common to many partsof mathematics and its applications, and to do so in a language that givesaway the trade secrets and tells the student what is in the back of the mindsof people proving theorems about integral equations and Hilbert spaces.The reader does not, however, have to share my prejudiced motivationExcept for an occasional reference to undergraduate mathematics the bookis self-contained and may be read by anyone who is trying to get a feelingfor the linear problems usually discussed in courses on matrix theory orhigher"algebra. The algebraic, coordinate-free methods do not lose powerand elegance by specialization to a finite number of dimensions, and theyare, in my belief, as elementary as the classical coordinatized treatmentI originally intended this book to contain a theorem if and only if aninfinite-dimensional generalization of it already exists, The temptingeasiness of some essentially finite-dimensional notions and results washowever, irresistible, and in the final result my initial intentions are justbarely visible. They are most clearly seen in the emphasis, throughout, ongeneralizable methods instead of sharpest possible results. The reader maysometimes see some obvious way of shortening the proofs i give In suchcases the chances are that the infinite-dimensional analogue of the shorterproof is either much longer or else non-existent.A preliminary edition of the book (Annals of Mathematics Studies,Number 7, first published by the Princeton University Press in 1942)hasbeen circulating for several years. In addition to some minor changes instyle and in order, the difference between the preceding version and thisone is that the latter contains the following new material:(1) a brief dis-cussion of fields, and, in the treatment of vector spaces with inner productsspecial attention to the real case.(2)a definition of determinants ininvariant terms, via the theory of multilinear forms. 3 ExercisesThe exercises(well over three hundred of them) constitute the mostsignificant addition; I hope that they will be found useful by both studentPREFACEand teacher. There are two things about them the reader should knowFirst, if an exercise is neither imperative "prove that.., )nor interrogtive("is it true that...?" )but merely declarative, then it is intendedas a challenge. For such exercises the reader is asked to discover if theassertion is true or false, prove it if true and construct a counterexample iffalse, and, most important of all, discuss such alterations of hypothesis andconclusion as will make the true ones false and the false ones true. Secondthe exercises, whatever their grammatical form, are not always placed 8oas to make their very position a hint to their solution. Frequently exer-cises are stated as soon as the statement makes sense, quite a bit beforemachinery for a quick solution has been developed. A reader who tries(even unsuccessfully) to solve such a"misplaced"exercise is likely to ap-preciate and to understand the subsequent developments much better forhis attempt. Having in mind possible future editions of the book, I askthe reader to let me know about errors in the exercises, and to suggest im-provements and additions. (Needless to say, the same goes for the text.)None of the theorems and only very few of the exercises are my discovery;most of them are known to most working mathematicians, and have beenknown for a long time. Although i do not give a detailed list of my sources,I am nevertheless deeply aware of my indebtedness to the books and papersfrom which I learned and to the friends and strangers who, before andafter the publication of the first version, gave me much valuable encourage-ment and criticism. Iam particularly grateful to three men: J. L. Dooband arlen Brown, who read the entire manuscript of the first and thesecond version, respectively, and made many useful suggestions, andJohn von Neumann, who was one of the originators of the modern spiritand methods that I have tried to present and whose teaching was theinspiration for this bookP、R.HCONTENTS的 FAPTERPAGRI SPACESI. Fields, 1; 2. Vector spaces, 3; 3. Examples, 4;4. Comments, 55. Linear dependence, 7; 6. Linear combinations. 9: 7. Bases, 108. Dimension, 13; 9. Isomorphism, 14; 10. Subspaces, 16; 11. Calculus of subspaces, 17; 12. Dimension of a subspace, 18; 13. Dualspaces, 20; 14. Brackets, 21; 15. Dual bases, 23; 16. Reflexivity, 24;17. Annihilators, 26; 18. Direct sums, 28: 19. Dimension of a directsum, 30; 20. Dual of a direct sum, 31; 21. Qguotient spaces, 33;22. Dimension of a quotient space, 34; 23. Bilinear forms, 3524. Tensor products, 38; 25. Product bases, 40 26. Permutations41; 27. Cycles,44; 28. Parity, 46; 29. Multilinear forms, 4830. Alternating formB, 50; 31. Alternating forms of maximal degree,52II. TRANSFORMATIONS32. Linear transformations, 55; 33. Transformations as vectors, 5634. Products, 58; 35. Polynomials, 59 36. Inverses, 61; 37. Mat-rices, 64; 38. Matrices of transformations, 67; 39. Invariance,7l;40. Reducibility, 72 41. Projections, 73 42. Combinations of pro-jections, 74; 43. Projections and invariance, 76; 44. Adjoints, 78;45. Adjoints of projections, 80; 46. Change of basis, 82 47. Similarity, 84; 48. Quotient transformations, 87; 49. Range and null-space, 88; 50. Rank and nullity, 90; 51. Transformations of rankone, 92 52. Tensor products of transformations, 95; 53. Determinants, 98 54. Proper values, 102; 55. Multiplicity, 104; 56. Triangular form, 106; 57. Nilpotence, 109; 58. Jordan form. 112III ORTHOGONALITY11859. Inner products, 118; 60. Complex inner products, 120; 61. Innerproduct spaces, 121; 62 Orthogonality, 122; 63. Completeness, 124;64. Schwarz e inequality, 125; 65. Complete orthonormal sets, 127;CONTENTS66. Projection theorem, 129; 67. Linear functionals, 130; 68. P aren, gBCHAPTERtheses versus brackets, 13169. Natural isomorphisms, 138;70. Self-adjoint transformations, 135: 71. Polarization, 13872. Positive transformations, 139; 73. Isometries, 142; 74. Changeof orthonormal basis, 144; 75. Perpendicular projections, 14676. Combinations of perpendicular projections, 148; 77. Com-plexification, 150; 78. Characterization of spectra, 158; 79. Spec-ptral theorem, 155; 80. normal transformations, 159; 81. Orthogonaltransformations, 162; 82. Functions of transformations, 16583. Polar decomposition, 169; 84. Commutativity, 171; 85. Self-adjoint transformations of rank one, 172IV. ANALYSIS....17586. Convergence of vectors, 175; 87. Norm, 176; 88. Expressions forthe norm, 178; 89. bounds of a self-adjoint transformation, 17990. Minimax principle, 181; 91. Convergence of linear transformations, 182 92. Ergodic theorem, 184 98. Power series, 186APPENDIX. HILBERT SPACERECOMMENDED READING, 195INDEX OF TERMS, 197INDEX OF SYMBOLS, 200CHAPTER ISPACES§L. FieldsIn what follows we shall have occasion to use various classes of numbers(such as the class of all real numbers or the class of all complex numbers)Because we should not at this early stage commit ourselves to any specificclass, we shall adopt the dodge of referring to numbers as scalars. Thereader will not lose anything essential if he consistently interprets scalarsas real numbers or as complex numbers in the examples that we shallstudy both classes will occur. To be specific(and also in order to operateat the proper level of generality) we proceed to list all the general factsabout scalars that we shall need to assume(A)To every pair, a and B, of scalars there corresponds a scalar a+called the sum of a and B, in such a way that(1) addition is commutative,a+β=β+a,(2)addition is associative, a+(8+y)=(a+B)+y(3 there exists a unique scalar o(called zero)such that a+0= a forevery scalar a, and(4)to every scalar a there corresponds a unique scalar -a such that十(0(B)To every pair, a and B, of scalars there corresponds a scalar aBcalled the product of a and B, in such a way that(1)multiplication is commutative, aB pa(2)multiplication is associative, a(Br)=(aB)Y,( )there exists a unique non-zero scalar 1 (called one)such that al afor every scalar a, and(4)to every non-zero scalar a there corresponds a unique scalar a-1or-such that aaSPACES(C)Multiplication is distributive with respect to addition, a(a+n)If addition and multiplication are defined within some set of objectsscalars) so that the conditions(A),B), and (c)are satisfied, then thatset(together with the given operations) is called a field. Thus, for examplethe set Q of all rational numbers(with the ordinary definitions of sumand product)is a field, and the same is true of the set of all real numberaand the set e of all complex numbersHHXERCISIS1. Almost all the laws of elementary arithmetic are consequences of the axiomsdefining a field. Prove, in particular, that if 5 is field and if a, and y belongto 5. then the following relations hold80+a=ab )Ifa+B=a+r, then p=yca+(B-a)=B (Here B-a=B+(a)(d)a0=0 c=0.(For clarity or emphasis we sometimes use the dot to indi-cate multiplication.()(-a)(-p)(g).If aB=0, then either a=0 or B=0(or both).2.(a)Is the set of all positive integers a field? (In familiar systems, such as theintegers, we shall almost always use the ordinary operations of addition and multi-lication. On the rare occasions when we depart from this convention, we shallgive ample warningAs for "positive, "by that word we mean, here and elsewherein this book, "greater than or equal to zero If 0 is to be excluded, we shall say"strictly positive(b)What about the set of all integers?(c) Can the answers to these questiong be changed by re-defining addition ormultiplication (or both)?3. Let m be an integer, m2 2, and let Zm be the set of all positive integers lessthan m, zm=10, 1, .. m-1). If a and B are in Zmy let a +p be the leastpositive remainder obtained by dividing the(ordinary) sum of a and B by m, andproduct of a and B by m.(Example: if m= 12, then 3+11=2 and 3. 11=9)a) Prove that i is a field if and only if m is a prime.(b What is -1 in Z5?(c) What is囊izr?4. The example of Z, (where p is a prime)shows that not quite all the laws ofelementary arithmetic hold in fields; in Z2, for instance, 1 +1 =0. Prove thatif is a field, then either the result of repeatedly adding 1 to itself is always dif-ferent from 0, or else the first time that it is equal to0 occurs when the numberof summands is a prime. (The characteristic of the field s is defined to be 0 in thefirst case and the crucial prime in the second)SEC. 2VECTOR SPACES35. Let Q(v2)be the set of all real numbers of the form a+Bv2, wherea and B are rational.(a)Ie(√2) a field?(b )What if a and B are required to be integer?6.(a)Does the set of all polynomials with integer coefficients form a feld?(b)What if the coeficients are allowed to be real numbers?7: Let g be the set of all(ordered) pairs(a, b)of real numbers(a) If addition and multiplication are defined by(a月)+(,6)=(a+y,B+6)and(a,B)(Y,8)=(ary,B6),does s become a field?(b )If addition and multiplication are defined by(α,月)+⑦,b)=(a+%,B+6)daB)(,b)=(ay-6a6+的y),is g a field then?(c)What happens (in both the preceding cases)if we consider ordered pairs ofcomplex numbers instead?§2. Vector spaceWe come now to the basic concept of this book. For the definitionthat follows we assume that we are given a particular field s; the scalarsto be used are to be elements of gDEFINITION. A vector space is a set o of elements called vectors satisfyingthe following axiomsQ (A)To every pair, a and g, of vectors in u there corresponds vectora t y, called the aum of a and y, in such a way that(1)& ddition is commutative,x十y=y十a(2)addition is associative, t+(y+2)=(+y)+a(3)there exists in V a unique vector 0(called the origin) such thata t0=s for every vector and(4)to every vector r in U there corresponds a unique vector -rthat c+(-x)=o(B)To every pair, a and E, where a is a scalar and a is a vector in u,there corresponds a vector at in 0, called the product of a and a, in sucha way that(1)multiplication by scalars is associative, a(Bx)=aB)=, and(2 lz a s for every vector xSPACESSFC B(C)(1)Multiplication by scalars is distributive with respect to vectorddition, a(+y=a+ ag, and2)multiplication by vectors is distributive with respect to scalar ad-dition, (a B )r s ac+ Bc.These axioms are not claimed to be logically independent; they aremerely a convenient characterization of the objects we wish to study. Therelation between a vector space V and the underlying field s is usuallydescribed by saying that v is a vector space over 5. If S is the field Rof real number, u is called a real vector space; similarly if s is Q or if gise, we speak of rational vector spaces or complex vector space§3. ExamplesBefore discussing the implications of the axioms, we give some examplesWe shall refer to these examples over and over again, and we shall use thenotation established here throughout the rest of our work.(1) Let e(= e)be the set of all complex numbers; if we interpretr+y and az as ordinary complex numerical addition and multiplicatione becomes a complex vector space2)Let o be the set of all polynomials, with complex coeficients, in avariable t. To make into a complex vector space, we interpret vectoraddition and scalar multiplication as the ordinary addition of two poly-nomials and the multiplication of a polynomial by a complex numberthe origin in o is the polynomial identically zeroExample(1)is too simple and example (2)is too complicated to betypical of the main contents of this book. We give now another exampleof complex vector spaces which(as we shall see later)is general enough forall our purposes.3)Let en,n= 1, 2,. be the set of all n-tuples of complex numbers.Ix=(1,…,轨)andy=(m1,…,n) are elements of e, we write,,bdefinitionz+y=〔1+叽,…十物m)0=(0,…,0),-inIt is easy to verify that all parts of our axioms(a),(B), and (C),52, aresatisfied, so that en is a complex vector space; it will be called n-dimenaionalcomplex coordinate space
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模糊控制及其MATLAB仿真.pdf
主要讲解模糊控制理论在MATLAB系统的中的应用前言自动控制理论经历了经典控制和现代控制两个重大发展阶段,已经相当完善。然而,对于许多复杂庞大的被控对象及其外界环境,有时难以建立有效的数学模型,因而无法采用常规的控制理论做定量分析计算和进行控制,这时就要借助于新兴的智能控制。智能控制是人工智能、控制论和运筹学相互交叉渗透形成的新兴学科,它具有定量和定性相结合的分析方法,融会了人类特有的推理、学习和联想等智能。模糊控制是在智能控制中适用面宽广、比较活跃且容易普及的一个分支。人类在感知世界、获取知识、思维推理、相互交流及决策和实施控制等诸多的实践环节中,对知识的表述往往带有“模糊性”的特点,这使得所包含的信息容量有时比“清晰性”的更大,内涵更丰富,也更符合客观世界。1965年美国的控制论专家L.A. Zadeh教授创立了模糊集合论,从而为描述、硏究和处理模糊性事物提供了一种新的数学工具。模糊控制就是利用模糊集合理论,把人的模糊控制策略转化为计算机所能接受的控制算法,进而实施控制的一种理论和技术。它能够模拟人的思维方式,因而对一些无法构建数学模型的系统可以进行有效的描述和控制,除了用于工业,也适用于社会学、经济学、环境学、生物学及医学等各类复杂系统。由于模糊控制应用广泛、便于普及,不仅许多高等学校开设了模糊控制课程,而且不少工程技术人员也渴望了解和学习这方面的知识。集作者多年从事“模糊信息处理”、“模糊控制”方面的科研和教学经验,编写了这本模糊控制方面的入门书。本书在选材、安排上均遵从“入门”和“实用”的原则,着重介绍模糊控制的基本概念、基本原理和基本方法。本着“重视实用性和可操作性”的工程教育思想,内容选取和叙述形式不追求“理论的高深和数学推导的严谨”,在学术性和实用性发生冲突时,学术性服从实用性。本书主要内容包括模糊控制的数学和逻辑学基础、模糊控制器的设计、模糊控制系统的仿真及神经网络在模糊控制中的应用。在介绍模糊控制的理谂时,按照模糊控制的需要介绍必要的基础理论和基本知识,而不是把模糊控制仅仅看作模糊理论的一种应用,片面追求模糊理论的系统性和完整性,致使读者在模糊数学和模糊逻辑的演算上花费很多精力。在介绍模糊规则的生成方法时,不仅介绍了根据操作经验建立规则的常用方法,而且通过实例介绍了从系统的输入、输出数据中获取模糊规则的方法在介绍模糊控制器时,集中介绍了实用范围较广的两种类型模糊控制器:Maπdani型和 Sugeno型。前一种模糊控制器的输λ量和输出量都是模糊子集,输出量需要经过清晰化才能用于执行机构;而后一种模糊控制器的输入量是模糊子集,输岀量为数字量,可以直接用于推动执行机构考虑到科技工作者学习模糊控制理论时需要实践及其实际需求,把模糊控制理论和计算机仿真进行了有机融合,较详细地介绍了 MATLAB仿真技术及其在模糊控制方面的应用通过仿真练习,弥补了学习理论过程中难以实践的缺陷,加深对模糊控制的理解,也使在解WW. 9CAX COI决实际问题时有所借鉴,为进一步深入学习和应用模糊控制理论打下良好的基础。神经网络是智能控制的一个重要分支,本书简要介绍了它在模糊控制中的应用,着重举例介绍了 MATLAB中“自适应神经模糊系统”的使用方法。本书配有教学课件,可从北京交通大学出版社网站下载,或发邮件至 cbswce( jg.bitu.edu.cn或aushi@126.com索取。吴嫦娥编辑对本书的出版起了极大的推动作用,在此深表谢意!由于模糊控制领域的理论目前尚不成熟,还存在许多未解难题,虽然作者在“模糊领域”有十余年的科研教学经验,但毕竟水平有限,恳请广大读者不吝赐教!编者(E mail: aushixm(a 126. com)2008年3月WW. 9CAX COI目录第1章引言………………………………………………………(1)1.1自动控制理论的发展历程……………………………………………………(1)1.2智能控制概况………………(2)1.2.1智能控制的发展简况………………………………………………………………(2)1.2.2智能控制的几个重要分支…1.3模糊控制,,,,,.,,,………(6)1.3.1模糊控制解决的问题…(7)1.3.2模糊控制的发展简史…………………………………………………………(7)1.3.3模糊控制的特点及展望…(9)思考与练习题………………………………………………………………………(10)第2章模糊控制的数学基础……………………………………………………(11)2.1清晰向模糊的转换·(11)2.1.1经典集合的基本概念………………………………………………………………(11)2.1.2模糊集合………………………………………………………………(14)2.2隶属函数…………………………………………………………………………………(22)2.2.1确定隶属函数的基木方法…………………………………………………(23)2.2.2常用隶属函数2.3F集合的运算………………………………………………(26)2.3.1F集合的基本运算………………………………………………(26)2.3.2模糊集合的基本运算规律………………………………………………………(29)2.3.3F集合运算的其他定义………………………………………………………(31)2.4模糊关系及其运算……………………………………………………………(32)2.4.1经典关系……(32)2.4.2模糊关系………………………………………………………………(34)2.4.3模糊关系的运算…………………………………………………………………(382.4.4F关系的合成…………………………………(40)2.5模糊向清晰的转换…………………………………………………………(45)2.5.1模糊集合的截集………………………………………………………(45)2.5.2模糊关系矩阵的截矩阵…(47)2.5.3模糊集合转化为数值的常用方法…(47)思考与练习题………………………………………………………………………(51)第3章模糊控制的逻辑学基础……………………………………………………………(53)3.1二值逻辑简介……………………………………………………………………(53)1判断WW. 9CAX COI3.1.2推理……………………………………………………………………(58)3.2自然语言的模糊集合表示……………………………………………………(59)3.2.1一些自然词语的F集合表示……………(59)3.2.2糢糊算子…………………………………………………………………(60)3.3模糊逻辑和近似推理……………(63)3.3.1模糊命题……………………………………………………(64)3.3.2常用的两种基本模糊条件语句…………………………………………………(65)3.3.3近似推理及其合成法则…(74)3.4T-S型模糊推理…………………………………………………………(81)3.4.1双输入、单输出系统的T-S型糢糊推理模型…………………………………(81)3.4.2MISO系统的TS模型………………………………………………………………(85)思考与练习题…(87)第4章模糊控制器的设计………………………………………(89)4.1模糊控制系统的基本组成………………(89)4.1.1从传统控制系统到模糊控制系统…………………………………………………(89)4.1.2模糊控制器的结构………………………………………………………………(92)4.2 Mamdani型模糊控制器的设计…(93)4.2.1 Mamdani型模糊控制器的基本组成…………(93)4.2.2量化因子和比例因子……………………………………………(94)4.2.3模糊化和清化……………………………………………………(98)4.2.4模糊控制规则……………………………………………………………………(102)4.2.5模糊自动洗衣机的设计…………………………(113)4.3T-S型模糊控制器的设计…(117)1.3.1T-S型模糊模型(118)4.3.2T-S型模糊系统设计要点………………………………………………………(121)4.4F控制器和PID控制器的结合…(121)4.4.1F-PID复合控制器……………………………(121)4.4.2F-PID复合控制器的其他形式………(122)4.4.3用模糊控制器调节PID控制器的参数………………………………(123)思考与练习题……………………………………………………………………………(125)第5章模糊控制系统的 MATLAB仿真…………………………………(127)5.1 Simulink仿真入门……………………………………………(127)5.1.1 MATLAB中的仿真模块库…………………………………………(128)5.1.2仿真模型图的构建……………………………………………………(135)5.1.3动态系统的 Simulink仿真……5.2模糊推理系统的设计与仿真………(149)5.2.1模糊推理系统的图形用户界面简介·..···,····,·············………(149)5.2.2模糊推理系统编辑器…………………………………………………………(150)2.3隶属函数编辑器…(156)WW. 9CAX COI5.2.4模糊规则编辑器…(161)5.2.5模糊规则观测窗…………(172)5.2.6FIS输出量由面观测窗………(179)5.2.7用GUI设计 Mamdani型模糊系统举例……………………………………(182)5.2.8用GUI设计 Sugeno型模糊系统举例……………………………………(189)5.3模糊控制系统的设计与仿真…………………………………………………(196)5.3.1FIS与 Simulink的连接………………………………………………………(196)5.3.2构建模糊控制系统的仿真模型图…(200)5.3.3通过仿真对系统进行分析……………………………………………(208)考与练习题……………………………………………………………………………………(218)第6章神经网络在模糊控制中的应用……………………………………………(219)6.1神经网络的基本原理…(219)6.1.1神经网络发展历史…(219)6.1.2神经元的生理结构……………………………………………(221)6.1.3神经元的数学模型…………………………………………………………(222)6.1.4人工神经网络模型…………………………………………………………(224)6.1.5神经网络模型的学习方法……(225)6.1.6BP型神经网络原理简介……………………………(227)6.2神经模糊控制……着,,,着……………(228)6.3用自适应神经模糊系统建立FIS…………………………………………(229)6.3.1 ANFIS图形用户界面简介,,,,·,.,··.,,.,·,·,着,,里,,,,,,·,,··,,,·,.·,·,,·(229)6.3.2用 Anfis建立FIS的步骤…………………………………………(233)6.3.3用 Anfis建立FIS举例……………………………………………………(245)思考与练习题(255)参考文献………………………………………………………………………………(256)ⅢlWW. 9CAX COI第1章引言本章介绍自动控制学科发展的历史概况,叙述从开环控制到智能控制的发展进程,并简单介绍智能控制的几个主要分支——专家控制、模糊控制和神经网络控制1.1自动控制理论的发展历程自动控制就是在没有人直接参与的情况下,利用外加的设备或装置(控制器),使机器、设备或生产过程(被控对象)的某个工作状态或参数(被控量),能够自动地按照设定的规律或指标运行的设备或系统。自从美国数学家维纳在20世纪40年代创立控制论以来,自动控制从最早的开环控制起步,然后是反馈控制、最优控制、随机控制,再到自适应控制、自学习控制、自组织控制,直发展到自动控制的最新阶段——智能控制。整个自动控制理论的发展进程,是由简单到复杂、由量变到质变的辩证发展过程,如图1-1所示。智能控制但会买继智能控制自学习控制自适应控制,鲁棒控制现代控随机控制最优控制确定性反馈控制开环控制控制系统的复杂性图1-1控制科学的发展过程传统控制理论经历过经典控制理论和现代控制理论两个具有里程碑意义的重要阶段,它们的共同点都是基于被控对象的清晰数学模型,即控制对象和干扰都得用严帑的数学方程和函数表示,控制任务和目标一般都比较直接明确,控制对象的不确定性和外界干扰只允许在很小的限度内发生个系统的数学模型就是对系统运动规律的数学描述,微分方程、传递函数和状态方程是描述控制系统的三种最基本的数学模型,其中微分方程是联系其他两者的纽带。经典控制理论主要研究单变量、常系数、线性系统数学模型,经常使用传递函数为基础的频域分析法;现代控制理论主要研究多输入-多输出线性系统数学模型,经常使用微分方程或状态方WW. 9CAX COI模糊控制及其 MATLAB仿真程为基础的时域分析法。传统控制方法多是解决线性、时不变性等相对简单的被控系统的控制问题,这类系统完全可以用线性、常系数、集总参量的微分方程予以描述。但是,许多实际的工业对象和控制目标常常并非都是如此理想,特别是遇到系统的规模庞大、结构复杂、变量众多,加之参数随机多变、参数间又存在强耦合或系统存在大滞后等错综复杂情况时,传统控制理论的纯粹数学解析结构则很难表达和处理。由于硏究对象和实际系统具有非线性、时变性、不确定性、不完全性或大滞后等特性,无法建立起表述它们运动规律和特性的数学模型,于是便失去了进行传统数学分析的基础,也就无法设计出合理的理想经典控制器。况且,在建立数学模型时一般都得经过理想化假设和处理,即把非线性化为线性,分布参数化为集中参数,时变的化为定常的,等等。因此,数学模型和这些实际系统的巨大差距,使之很难对其实现有效的传统自动控制,于是便出现了某些仿人智能的工程控制与信息处理系统,产生和发展了智能控制大量的生产实践表明,有许多难以建立数学模型的复杂系统和繁难工艺过程,可以由熟练技术工人、工程师或专家的手工操作,依靠人类的智慧,能够获得满意的控制效果。例如,欲将一辆汽车倒入指定的车位,确实无法建立起这一过程的数学模型。然而熟练的司机却可以非常轻松地把它倒入预定的位置。类似的问题使人们自然想到,能否在传统控制中加人人类的认知、手工控制事物的经验、能力和逻辑推理等智能成分,充分利用人的操作技巧、控制经验和直觉推理,把人的因素作为一个有机部分融入控制系统呢?能否根据系统的实际输入、输出类似于熟练技工那样进行实时控制,甚至使机器也具有人类的学习和自适应能力,进而用机器代替人类进行复杂对象和系统的实时控制呢?1.2智能控制概况20世纪60年代以来,由于空间技术、计算机技术及人工智能技术的发展,控制界学者在研究自组织、自学习控制的基础上,为了提高控制系统的自学习能力,开始注意将人工智能技术与方法应用于工程控制中,逐渐形成了智能控制。1.2.1智能控制的发展简况所谓智能控制,就是通过定性和定量相结合的方法,针对被控对象和控制任务的复杂性、不确定性和多变特性,有效自主地实现繁杂信息的处理、优化和判断,以致决策,最终达到控制被控系统的目的。智能控制的诞生1966年,J.M. Mendal首先提出将人工智能技术应用于飞船控制系统的设计;其后,1971年,美籍华人科学家傅京逊首次提岀智能控制这一概念,并归纳了三种类型的智能控制系统①)人作为控制器的控制系统:这种控制系统具有自学习、自适应和自组织的功能。②人-机结合作为控制器的控制系统:机器完成需要连续进行的、快速计算的常规控制任务,人则完成任务分配、决策、监控等任务。③无人参与旳自主控制系统:用多层智能控制系统,完成问题求解和规划、环境建模、WW. 9CAX COI第1章引言传感器信息分析和低层的反馈控制任务,如自主机器人。1985年8月,美国电机及电子工程师学会( Institute of Electrical and Electrical Enginers,IEEE)在纽约召开了第一届智能控制学术讨论会,随后成立了智能控制专业委员会;1987年1月,在美国举行第一次国际智能控制大会,标志着智能控制领域的形成。智能控制即含有人类智能的控制系统,它具有学习、抽象、推理、决策等功能,并能根据环境(包括被控对象或被控过程)信息的变化做岀适应性反应,从而使机器能够完成以前只能由人可以完成的控制任务。2.智能控制的三元论智能控制是一门交叉学科,傅京逊教授于1971年首先提出智能控制( Intelligent Control,IC)是人工智能与自动控制的交叉,即智能控制的二元论。在此基础上,美国学者G.N. Saridis于1977年引入运筹学,提出了三元论的智能控制概念,认为智能控制是人工智能( Artificial Intelligence,AⅠ)、自动控制( Automatic control,AC)和运筹学(Operational research,OR)等形成的交叉学科,即IC=AI∩AC∩OR,它们的含义如下:信号处理、形式语言AI—人工智能,是一个用来模拟人启发推理规划、调度、管理类思维的知识处理系统,具有记忆、学习、人工智能运筹学信息处理、形式语言、启发推理等功能学习、记忆可以应用于判断、推理、预测、识别、决智能控制协调、管理策、学习等各类问题;AC自动控制,描述系统的动力学自动控制特性,实现无人操作而能完成预设目标的一优化、动力学、动态反馈种理论体系,一般具有动态反馈功能;OR—运筹学,是一种定量优化方法,如线性规划、网络规划、调度、管理、优化决策和多目标优化方法等。图1-2智能控制的三元论示意图基于三元论的智能控制概念如图1-2所示。现在,为多数人所接受的三元论智能控制概念,除了“智能”与“控制”外,还强调了更高层次控制中的调度、规划和管理作用,为分层、递阶智能控制提供了理论依据。3.智能控制的特点在分析方法上具有定量与定性相结合的智能控制,应该具有以下一些功能。1)学习功能智能控制器能通过从外界环境所获得的信息进行学习,不断积累知识,使系统的控制性能得到改善。2)适应功能智能控制器具有从输入到输岀的映射关系,可实现不依赖于模型的自适应控制,当系统某一部分出现故障时,仍能进行控制。WW. 9CAX COI
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